Serval (Leptailurus serval) Classification

Despite its widespread occurrence across Sub‐Saharan Africa, the serval (Leptailurus serval) remains largely understudied, especially within Central and Western Africa.

Historically regarded as a savanna specialist, servals are thought to be absent from dense, rainforest habitat (IUCN habitat class 1.9).

Here, we present evidence of servals occupying tropical moist montane forest across several years, in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda.

We highlight the potential knowledge gap in the currently‐accepted IUCN serval range map and the importance of increasing research efforts in understudied areas across Central and Western Africa to improve understanding of species' presence and ecology in these systems.

Evers, Emma & Mulindahabi, Felix & Ntibabarira, Jean. (2025). Presence of Servals (Leptailurus serval) in a Mature, Closed‐Canopy Tropical Moist Montane Rainforest Ecosystem Challenges Conventional Range Maps. African Journal of Ecology. 63. e70072. 10.1111/aje.70072.

Biological and cultural diversity are inextricably linked and rapidly eroding worldwide. As a response, many conservation efforts foster synergies between cultural and biological diversity agendas through biocultural approaches. However, such approaches do not always address biocultural conflicts, where certain cultural practices can lead to biodiversity loss and, in turn, threaten the continuance of such practices.

In this study, we examined a biocultural conflict in the Dimi ceremony, the most important rite of passage of the Daasanach agro-pastoralists of north Kenya, in which skins from threatened carnivore species are used extensively as traditional ornaments. We quantified the current use of skins in Dimi as well as changes in the cultural ceremony that exacerbate its impacts on wildlife. We collected field-based data on the context of the use of skins through structured interviews, focus-group discussions, participant observation and counts of skins in two Dimi ceremonies.

We counted a total of 121 skins of four carnivore species being used in a single ceremony. We also found that Dimi has become environmentally unsustainable, threatening distant cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopard (Panthera pardus) populations and local species with spotted skins (African civet (Civettictis civetta), common genet (Genetta genetta) and serval (Leptailurus serval)).

The young Daasanach are deeply concerned about the lack of availability of skins in their area, as well as the prohibitive prices, and they are calling for alternatives to the use of skins in Dimi. Overall, our study shows that acknowledging biocultural conflicts and opening space for dialogue with local communities are essential for the maintenance of both biological and cultural diversity.

Torrents-Tico, M.; Fernandez-Llamazares, A; Burgas, D.; Nasak, J.G.; Cabeza, M.
Biocultural conflicts: understanding complex interconnections between a traditional ceremony and threatened carnivores in north Kenya
2023  Oryx (57): 435-444

Understanding activity and habitat use are important for identifying mechanisms facilitating species co-occurrence.

We studied habitat use and activity patterns of caracals (Caracal caracal) and servals (Leptailurus serval), primarily nocturnal, midsized felids that prey extensively on small mammals and co-occur in portions of sub- Saharan Africa.

Spatial and temporal patterns of segregation were investigated in a 1,085-km² area of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania from 2010-2012. We used occupancy analysis to quantify habitat use and kernel density estimators and Mardia-Watson-Wheleer tests to analyse activity patterns.

We found evidence for habitat divergence but high temporal overlap between species. Servals selected for grassland and avoided shrubland and wooded grassland. In contrast, the findings showed that caracals avoided grassland and woodland-shrubland; however, 73% of caracals were detected in wooded grassland. Overall, caracals and servals co-occurred independently, Species Interaction Factor, (phi = 1).

This indicates that differential use of habitats in part facilitated coexistence of caracals and servals.

Proper management of the declining grasslands including other habitats are recommended to facilitate continued coexistence. Additional studies, including feeding ecology, would be important to further understand mechanisms facilitating coexistence between caracals and servals.

Mwampeta, S.; Magige, F.J.; Belant, J.L.
Spatial and temporal overlap of caracal and serval in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania
2020 African Journal of Ecology (58): 361-370

Population density is a fundamental parameter needed to assess wildlife populations but is difficult to obtain given species are often wide-ranging and elusive. Photographic capture-recapture techniques do not require direct observations and thus, have become a common approach for estimating wildlife densities. To date, however, these studies have typically focused on single species. Our research explores study design- and analytical- based approaches for expanding photographic capture-recapture studies to assess multiple species simultaneously.

We developed a hybrid-sampling scheme that varied inter-camera distances and used simulations to test the efficacy of this design versus a systematically spaced grid in estimating densities of species with varied space use. Through simulations we found the hybrid design facilitated density estimates for a wider range of species with little or no cost in accuracy for most species.

We implemented a hybrid camera design across a 1154-km² area in northern Botswana to estimate densities of lions, spotted hyenas, leopards, wild dogs, servals, civets, and aardwolves. We estimated densities of these small- to wide-ranging carnivores, where all or some portion of the population was individually identifiable, using spatially explicit capture-recapture and markresight models.

Mean estimates ranged from 1.2 (95% CI=0.72-1.99) lions to 10.1 (95% CI=8.69-11.63) spotted hyenas/100 km² and provided empirical information needed for the conservation of these species in Botswana.

Our research demonstrates how photographic capture-recapture studies can be expanded to estimate the densities of multiple species versus just a single species within a community, thus increasing the conservation value of this globally implemented approach.

Rich, L.N.; Miller, D.A.W.; Munoz, D.J.; Robinson, H.S.; McNutt, J.W.; Kelly, M.J.
Sampling design and analytical advances allow for simultaneous density estimation of seven sympatric carnivore species from camera trap data
2019  Biological Conservation (233): 12-20

Despite its wide distribution in continental Africa, the serval (Leptailurus serval Schreber) has received relatively little scientific attention so far.

We did camera-trapping in the forest-savannah mosaic of the Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo. The park's savannahs represent the northernmost extension of the savannahs of the Batéké Plateaux, a large ecoregion of open habitat in Central Africa.

During 8 months of camera-trapping, we recorded 51 individuals. Almost two-thirds of individuals recorded belonged to the servaline morph, with a pattern mutation of small "freckled" spots. Using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian spatially explicit capture-recapture methods serval density was 7.7-9.8 individuals/ 100 km². ML analyses favoured a model with trap placement and gender as covariates.

Serval males were largely nocturnal whereas females were mainly diurnal. Differences in activity patterns were likely related to the occurrence of spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta Erxleben). Spotted hyaenas were highly nocturnal and, consequently, had a higher overlap in activity patterns with male servals.

Our study provided the first robust density estimates for this medium-sized carnivore in Central Africa. To achieve sufficient precision in density estimates, we recommend that future studies also include individual and trap placement covariates in analyses.

Bohm, T.; Hofer, H.
Population numbers, density and activity patterns of servals in savannah patches of Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo
2018  African Journal of Ecology (56): 841-849

Despite its IUCN Red List status as "least concern," relatively few studies have been conducted on serval (Leptailurus serval).

Within Namibia, serval are detected infrequently, even during prolonged camera trapping surveys, which has been suggested as indicative of low density. Such populations are vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation; therefore, quantifying serval population density and distribution within Namibia is an important first step in establishing conservation needs.

We present the first density estimates of serval for Namibia, from Khaudum National Park and the Mudumu North Complex (MNC). Using Bayesian spatial capture-recapture models, density was estimated at 1.28 serval/100 km² (± 0.23, 0.82-1.56) for Khaudum and 0.63 serval/100 km² (± 0.51, 0.38-0.90) for the MNC; the lowest serval densities published to date.

Photographic records from the two surveys, along with an additional 10 records from MNC captured outside of the survey period and two new records from north-central Namibia were used to update the Namibian distribution map. This resulted in the highest probability of occurrence along the north-eastern borders.

Such results imply Namibia hosts a low-density, geographically limited population, potentially vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and other environmental impacts, and therefore requires careful management to ensure its persistence.

Edwards, S.; Portas, R.; Hanssen, L.; Beytell, P.; Melzheimer, J.; Stratford, K.
The spotted ghost: Density and distribution of serval (Leptailurus serval) in Namibia
2018  African Journal of Ecology (56): 831-840