Mainland Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Classification

Terrestrial carnivores, such as the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), are ‘vulnerable’ and experiencing significant population declines in mainland Asia. Considering the assessed threats, the IUCN has repetitively revised the range of this felid and now characterized it into four distinct categories (extant, possibly extant, possibly extinct, and extinct). Although several ecological works have been accomplished on this enigmatic carnivore, the overall view of its habitat suitability, fragmentation, and corridor connectivity in both present and historical ranges is lacking. Thus, achieving this ecological information under present and future climate scenarios is crucial.

The model identified merely 44,033 sq. km falling within the extant range (representing 31.66%) and 20,034 sq. km (8.13%) in the possibly extant range. Fascinatingly, within the historical ranges, an additional 15,264 sq. km (6.58%) has been identified as suitable habitat in the possibly extinct range and 14,022 sq. km (2.38%) in the extinct range. Notably, a total of 25,614 sq. km of suitable habitat is found within designated protected areas across the entire range. Nevertheless, climate change is expected to drive habitat loss of up to 41% (overall IUCN range) for N. nebulosa in both present and historical extent, with habitat patches becoming increasingly fragmented. This is reflected in a projected decline in the number of viable habitat patches (NP) by up to 23.29% in the future.

This study also identified 18 transboundary biological corridors for N. nebulosa, with Southeast Asian countries expected to experience the most significant declines in corridor connectivity. In contrast, the South Asian countries (Bhutan, Nepal, and India) are projected to maintain relatively higher connectivity in the future. Nevertheless, a substantial decline in overall mean corridor connectivity is projected in the near future due to the impacts of climate change.

This study underscores the urgent need for a coordinated and multifaceted conservation strategy for N. nebulosa, focusing on mitigating habitat loss and fragmentation. Practical measures must be implemented to protect the species’ shrinking range, considering its declining corridor networks and heightened vulnerability to inbreeding depression. Moreover, the assessment of habitat suitability both within and beyond the extant range, alongside corridor connectivity measures, provides valuable insights into potential translocation and reintroduction sites for this species.

These findings provide a critical foundation for developing a strategic conservation plan tailored to the specific needs of this felid species across South and Southeast Asia, ensuring enhanced climate resilience and mitigating associated threats.

Abedin, Imon & Singha, Hilloljyoti & Kang, Hye-Eun & Kim, Hyun Woo & Kundu, Shantanu. (2024). Forecasting Suitable Habitats of the Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) in Asia: Insights into the Present and Future Climate Projections Within and Beyond Extant Boundaries. Biology. 13. 902. 10.3390/biology13110902.

Hunting, habitat loss and fragmentation have caused a rapid decline in the distribution and abundance of the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa across its range, and in several areas, including Taiwan, the species is now extirpated.

Taiwan, a former stronghold for the species, is a candidate for its reintroduction, based on increasing prey abundance and high forest coverage. Such future reintroduction efforts, however, are hampered by a lack of analysis of potential clouded leopard habitat on the island. To address this, we explore habitat suitability for the species in Taiwan.

We used a multi-scale, multivariate habitat selection model based on clouded leopard presence–absence data from extensive camera-trap surveys across its current range to predict suitable habitat in Taiwan.

Our findings indicate that 38% of Taiwanese territory is potentially suitable habitat for the clouded leopard, of which 46% is under protection.

This demonstrates the high potential of Taiwan's habitat for clouded leopard reintroduction.

Wang, Yifeng & Kaszta, Żaneta & Cushman, Samuel & Chiang, Po-Jen & Macdonald, David & Hearn, Andrew. (2024). A multi-scale, multivariate habitat selection model demonstrates high potential for the reintroduction of the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa to Taiwan. Oryx. 1-4. 10.1017/S0030605324000802.

In Southeast Asia, conservation of 'Vulnerable' clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) and 'Endangered' tigers (Panthera tigris) might depend on the management of their preferred prey because large felid populations are limited by the availability of suitable prey. However, the diet of clouded leopards has never been determined, so the preferred prey of this felid remains unknown. The diet of tigers in the region has been studied only from one protected-area complex in western Thailand, but prey preferences were not determined.

To better understand the primary and preferred prey of threatened felids, we used DNA-confirmed scats and prey surveys to determine the diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in a hilly evergreen forest in northern Laos. For clouded leopards, the primary prey was wild pig (Sus scrofa; 33% biomass consumed), followed by greater hog badger (Arctonyx collaris; 28%), small rodents (15%), and mainland serow (Capricornis sumatraensis; 13%; hereafter, serow). For tigers, the primary prey was wild pig (44%), followed by serow (18%), sambar (Rusa unicolor; 12%), and Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus; 10%). Compared to availability, serow was positively selected by both clouded leopards (D = 0.69) and tigers (0.61), whereas all other ungulate species were consumed in proportion to the availability or avoided.

Our results indicate that clouded leopards are generalist predators with a wide prey spectrum. Nonetheless, mid-sized ungulates (50-150 kg) comprised nearly half of their diet, and were the preferred prey, supporting a previous hypothesis that the enlarged gape and elongated canines of clouded leopards are adaptations for killing large prey.

Because serow was the only ungulate preferred by both felids, we recommend that serow populations be monitored and managed to help conservation efforts for clouded leopards and tigers, at least in hilly evergreen forests of Southeast Asia.

Rasphone, A.; Bousa, A.; Vongkhamheng, C.; Kamler, J.F.; Johnson, A.; MacDonald, D.W.
Diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in Laos
2022 Ecology and Evolution (12): e9067

In September 2021, the Cat Specialist Group completed the Red List Assessment for mainland clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (Gray et al. 2021) for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species TM.

Since the previous Red List assessment (Grassman et al. 2016), there have been several published studies investigating the range-wide distribution of remaining habitat and recent occurrence records (e.g., Macdonald et al. 2019, Petersen et al. 2020a). These assisted the most recent assessment, as did new published estimates on site-specific population densities (e.g., Singh & Macdonald 2017, Petersen et al. 2020b, Fig. 1.).

This latest assessment resulted in the species maintaining its status as globally Vulnerable.

Gray, T.N.E.; Borah, J.; Coudrat, C.N.Z.; Ghimirey, Y.; Giordano, A.J.; Greenspan, E.; Mohamad, S.; Petersen, W.J.; Rostro-Garcia, S.; Wong, W.-M.
Mainland clouded leopard: IUCN Red List status update
2021 Cat News (73): 36-38

Context After decades of political and economic isolation, Myanmar is now the focus of large international investments, particularly from China, which raises questions of how to balance national development with safeguarding the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot.

Objective To evaluate the impact of five major developments in Myanmar on forest ecosystems, using clouded leopard as a focal and umbrella species for wider biodiversity conservation.

Methods Based on an empirical habitat relationships model, we identified core areas and corridors in Myanmar, and compared them across the development scenarios. We simulated population dynamics and genetic diversity in each scenario using an individual based, spatially explicit cost-distance population genetics model.

Results The predicted current clouded leopard population may be larger than the current carrying capacity of the landscape, raising the possibility that the species' population has not yet equilibrated with recent habitat loss and degradation. All the developments combined resulted in 36% decrease in landscape connectivity and 29% decrease in simulated clouded leopard population size, including substantial reduction in genetic diversity. Each development was predicted to have a negative effect; however, emerging economic zones had disproportionally large impacts (- 24% in connectivity and - 25% in population size), resulting in fragmentation of the largest core areas. Similarly, the Indian Highway and Silk Road caused fragmentation of the largest core habitats, and the Pipeline Railroad significantly decreased connectivity in the main stronghold for clouded leopards.

Conclusions Spatially-explicit assessments like the one presented here provide quantitative evaluation on development impacts and help optimize the trade-offs between development and conservation. The rapid and increasing development of Myanmar and surrounding Southeast Asian nations pose an enormous threat to the biodiversity of the region. Optimizing the trade-off between development goals and conservation is essential to minimize the effects of rapid land use change on biodiversity.

Kaszta, Z.; Cushman, S.A.; Htun, S.; Naing, H.; Burnham, D.; MacDonald, D.W.
Simulating the impact of Belt and Road initiative and other major developments in Myanmar on an ambassador felid, the clouded leopard, Neofelis nebulosa
2020 Landscape Ecology (35): 727-746