Leopard (Panthera pardus) Classification

This article provides information on the background, goals, objectives, timelines, sponsors, implementers, first results and prospects for further development of the international project for the study and conservation of the Persian leopard Panthera pardus tulliana in Kazakhstan.

It presents for the first time the facts of discovery of at least four leopard specimens for the last 20 years in the territory of Mangistau region of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2022-2023, as well as the successful cooperation of the project team with the Border Guard Service of the National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan, during which the first passages for ungulates -goitered gazelles and urials - were set up in the border wire fences on the sections of the state border of Kazakhstan with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan within the framework of the implementation of the obligations of the Kazakhstan under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.

The efficiency of the use of the passages by ungulates is confirmed by data from camera traps.

Pestov, Mark & Terentyev, Vladimir & Ongarbayev, Nurlan & Rosen, Tatjana & Nurmukhambetov, Zhaskairat & Mukhashov, Aktan. (2024). Project on the study and conservation of the Persian leopard Panthera pardus tulliana in Kazakhstan in 2023-2025: first results and prospects.

The African leopard ( Panthera pardus pardus ) has lost a significant proportion of its historical range, notably in north-western Africa and South Africa. Recent studies have explored the genetic diversity and population structure of African leopards across the continent. A notable genetic observation is the presence of two divergent mitochondrial lineages, PAR-I and PAR-II. Both lineages appeared to be distributed widely, with PAR-II frequently found in southern Africa. Until now, no study has attempted to date the emergence of either lineage, assess haplotype distribution, or explore their evolutionary histories in any detail.

To investigate these underappreciated questions, we compiled the largest and most geographically representative leopard data set of the mitochondrial NADH-5 gene to date. We combined samples ( n = 33) collected in an altitudinal transect across the Mpumalanga province of South Africa, where two populations of leopard are known to be in genetic contact, with previously published sequences of African leopard ( n = 211). We estimate that the maternal PAR-I and PAR-II lineages diverged approximately 0.7051 (0.4477–0.9632) million years ago (Ma).

Through spatial and demographic analyses, we show that while PAR-I underwent a mid-Pleistocene population expansion resulting in several closely related haplotypes with little geographic structure across much of its range, PAR-II remained at constant size and may even have declined slightly in the last 0.1 Ma. The higher genetic drift experienced within PAR-II drove a greater degree of structure with little haplotype sharing and unique haplotypes in central Africa, the Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and the South African Highveld. The phylogeographic structure of PAR-II, with its increasing frequency southward and its exclusive occurrence in south-eastern South Africa, suggests that this lineage may have been isolated in South Africa during the mid-Pleistocene. This hypothesis is supported by historical changes in paleoclimate that promoted intense aridification around the Limpopo Basin between 1.0–0.6 Ma, potentially reducing gene flow and promoting genetic drift. Interestingly, we ascertained that the two nuclear DNA populations identified by a previous study as East and West Mpumalanga correspond to PAR-I and PAR-II, respectively, and that they have come into secondary contact in the Lowveld region of South Africa.

Our results suggest a subdivision of African leopard mtDNA into two clades, with one occurring almost exclusively in South Africa, and we identify the potential environmental drivers of this observed structure. We caution that our results are based on a single mtDNA locus, but it nevertheless provides a hypothesis that can be further tested with a dense sample of nuclear DNA data, preferably whole genomes. If our interpretation holds true, it would provide the first genetic explanation for the smaller observed size of leopards at the southernmost end of their range in Africa.

Morris, Declan & McWhorter, Todd & Boardman, Wayne & Simpson, Gregory & Wentzel, Jeanette & Coetzee, Jannie & Moodley, Yoshan. (2024). Unravelling the maternal evolutionary history of the African leopard ( Panthera pardus pardus ). PeerJ. 12. e17018. 10.7717/peerj.17018.

The North Chinese leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis), the least-known big cat, disappeared in most historical range for decades, following the development of modern civilization. Unfortunately, we have scarce knowledge about the status of this big cat so far, apart from anecdotal reports.

In this study, we investigated density, distribution, and habitat use of the leopard, the apex predator, in a complex forest landscape in the Loess Plateau. We used a camera-trapping network to obtain population estimates for leopards over 2 years through spatially explicit capture-recapture models.

Our results, based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian/MCMC methods, reveal that the largest wild population of the leopard was found widely distributed in remnant forests in central Loess plateau. The population is increasing in our study area, and the density of leopards (1.70 (SE = 0.48) - 2.40 (SE = 0.67)/100 km2) is higher than other areas of China.

According to the analysis of 2 seasonal occupancy models, prey species drive partially the leopard habitat use, predicting that the big cat thrives from the recovery of prey community. However, human disturbances, especially oil wells, seem to have negative impacts on the habitat use of leopards.

Specifically, it is necessary to have joint efforts by the government and researchers to improve human disturbances management and prey species population density, as well as strengthen the investment in research on the North Chinese leopard, which could all further strengthen protection ability and ensure the long-term survival of this species.

Yang, H.; Xie, B.; Zhao, G.; Gong, Y.; Mou, P.; Ge, J.; Feng, L.
Elusive cats in our backyards: persistence of the North Chinese leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis) in a human-dominated landscape in central India
2022  Integrative Zoology (16): 67-83

Abstract 1. Leopards are often translocated away from where they are caught as non-lethal human-wildlife conflict mitigation. It is alleged that leopards fail to settle where they are translocated to, owing to territoriality. We address the need to publish more accounts of successful repatriation of leopards, but also include novel applications aimed at orphans and confiscated leopards.

2. We satellite collared 16 leopards which included a mixture of relocated and translocated leopards, of which the latter included conventional damage causing animals (DCAs, viz 'problem animals'), orphans and confiscations. We determined standard home-range metrics and assessed home-range stabilization as a means of determining site fidelity. Premature mortality and site infidelity, that is homing back to origins, were considered failures. We looked at range stabilization by examining successive monthly ranges against that of the preceding month, that is utilization distribution overlap indices (UDOIs).

3. Relocations turned out to be residents (~3 km, n = 3), while they were immune to intervention, while translocations resulted in 50% success (n = 12), which were invariably confiscated adults of unknown origin, and simulations of natal dispersals of orphans (~25 km, n = 3). DCAs never settled where released (~90 km, n = 5). Resident leopards showed high monthly UDOIs, and for those translocated a minimum of 0.15 was benchmarked to suggest range stability, which also reflected large spatial ranging.

4. Success in home-range establishment was associated with landscapes which were unsaturated by other leopards, but anthropogenic threats still persisted, such that survival after a year was ~45%, but was not different to the normal background mortality of areas outside protected areas in the country. Operations are costly, particularly that to do with veterinary treatment, immobilization, collars and temporary keeping, but such costs can be carried by public interest groups.

5. All adults (>3 years) of known origin should be relocated (transported distance < home-range diameter), while subadults (1-3 years) can be considered for translocations (transported distance > home-range diameter), while heeding ecological and genetic considerations, and not exceeding ~400 km. Other non-lethal mitigation should however be considered before translocation of leopards is contemplated. These findings can be applicable to solitary felids with a similar social organization.

Power, R.J.; Venter, L.; Botha, M.V.; Bartels, P.
Repatriating leopards into novel landscapes of a South African province
2021  Ecological Solutions and Evidence (2): e12046

Sustainable offtake of any threatened species and objective monitoring thereof relies on data-driven and well-managed harvest quotas and permit compliance. We used web-sourced images of African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) trophy hunts to determine whether online photographs could assist in monitoring and documenting trophy hunting in Africa.

Of 10,000 images examined, 808 (8%) showed leopard trophy hunts and could be contextualized by date and country. From a subset of photos (n = 530), across six countries between 2011 and 2020, we extracted information on the leopards killed and hunter demographics. We found no significant differences in leopard sex, age, or shot wound position between countries, and most trophy leopards were in good physical condition. Most hunters were White (96%) and estimated at over 40 years old (82%), with the proportion of women hunters in younger age classes significantly higher than in older classes. Rifles, bows, and hounds were used in all countries, except Tanzania and Zambia, where rifles were exclusively used.

Online images could not be reasonably compared to the CITES trade database, but in South Africa, more than half (57%) of all nationally registered leopard trophy hunts in the last decade (2010-2020) have been posted online. Online images also reveal hunting violations, including non-permitted hunting of female leopards and illegal hounding. Such monitoring methods may become increasingly useful as social media usage grows and provide valuable insight into this multi-million dollar industry.

Muller, J.R.; Selier, S.-A.J.; Drouilly, M.; Broadfield, J.; Leighton, G.R.M.; Amar, A.; Naude, V.N.
The hunter and the hunted: Using web-sourced imagery to monitor leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) trophy hunting
2021  Conservation Science and Practice (4): 1-16

Conservation of big cats Panthera spp., a taxonomic group including tigers, lions, jaguars, leopards and snow leopards, is a daunting challenge. As expanding human populations across Panthera range countries exacerbate competition for land and prey, conflicts between humans and big cats are inevitable.

Through a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature published from 1991 to 2014 and indexed in Web of Science and Google Scholar (186 articles), our study explored the current state of knowledge regarding human-Panthera conflict and potential solutions, examining variables such as spatial and temporal distribution of research, methods used to study conflict, evaluation of interventions, and management recommendations.

Our synthesis revealed several key data gaps and research needs. More studies could utilize diverse data collection approaches to focus on both the ecological and socio-cultural context for conflict. Additionally, only 21% of articles included in the review evaluated conflict mitigation interventions, and few of these yielded conclusive results. Success ratios suggest that compensation schemes and livestock management strategies were more effective tools for addressing conflict than either direct interventions (lethal removal or translocation of animals) or community interventions (e.g. education, ecotourism, local management). More studies should systematically evaluate the efficacy of conflict mitigation strategies, many of which are consistently recommended without empirical support.

Results highlight trends and opportunities that can be used to inform future research and management efforts focused on human-Panthera conflict, ultimately enhancing the potential for coexistence between humans and carnivore species worldwide

Holland, K.K.; Larson, L.R.; Powell, R.B.
Characterizing conflict between humans and big cats Panthera spp: A systematic review of research trends and management opportunities
2018  PLoS ONE (13): 1-19